Has the Theory of Evolution benefited mankind?

Hi,Just as some general information here is a quote from the "White Paper" (http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~ecolevol/fulldoc.html) which pretty much answers the opening post. I know it's not really a done thing to post such long quotes without comment, but I guess this speaks for itself. The quote is part of a description of the future role of evolutionary biology in the applied arena; the document also contains a similar section of previous accomplishments, which you can look up if you are interested.

quote:

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1. Health science
Advances in applying evolutionary disciplines to human health fall into several categories.

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· Human genetic diversity. Research on human genetic diversity will complement the Human Genome Project, which ultimately will sequence the entire human genome. Such research will provide data, at the molecular level, on the immense genetic diversity that exists within and among human populations. The techniques of population genetics and phylogenetic analysis will be applied to the exploding information on human genetic variation to determine the history of populations (e.g., their past sizes, movements, and interchanges), and will continue to provide tools for identifying the genetic lesions associated with inherited diseases and defects (as in the case of cystic fibrosis, breast cancer, and others). Evolutionary comparisons of human DNA sequences with those of other species will provide insight into gene functions. Population geneticists will analyze the genetic bases of interesting variable traits, such as reactions to allergens. Genes that provide adaptations to environmental factors such as pathogens and diet will be identified by studying genetic differences among and within populations. The methods used by evolutionary geneticists will be applied to human diversity in order to elucidate cases of complex inheritance of disease (e.g., those due to interactions among multiple genes) and to study genotype/environment interactions”the differential expression of traits such as disease resistance under different environmental conditions.

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· Genetic identification. Population genetics has developed, and is continuing to improve, analytical methods for identifying individuals and relationships among individuals from a profile of genetically variable markers. This methodology also uses linked genetic markers to determine the likelihood that an individual carries genes of particular interest (e.g., those causing a genetic disease). As evolutionary geneticists improve these methods and apply them to data on human genetic diversity, it will be possible to use molecular markers more confidently and accurately for such purposes as counseling individuals on the likelihood that they or their children will carry a genetic disease , determining paternity, and forensic analysis.

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· Evolutionary developmental genetics. Comparative data on the genetic and mechanical bases of development in diverse vertebrates and other organisms will shed much light on the mechanisms of human development. Such studies will contribute to our understanding of the bases of hereditary and other congenital defects in humans, and may ultimately be useful in developing gene therapies.

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· Mechanisms and evolution of antibiotic resistance. Genetic, phylogenetic, and comparative biochemical studies of bacteria, protists, fungi, helminths, and other parasites will help to identify targets for antibiotics. The rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance in previously susceptible pathogens presents a critical need for evolutionary study, aimed at understanding the mechanisms of resistance, its rate of evolution, factors that may limit such evolution, and ways of preventing or counteracting it.

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· Parasite virulence and host resistance. Evolutionary studies of parasite/host interactions, using both model systems and human parasites and pathogens, are only beginning to determine the conditions that lead parasites to become more virulent or more benign. Evolutionary geneticists and evolutionary ecologists need to develop a general, predictive theory of the evolution and population dynamics of pathogens and their hosts, especially for rapidly evolving organisms such as HIV and for rapidly migrating host species like modern humans. Analyses of genetic variation in resistance to pathogens in humans and other hosts are also needed.

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· Epidemiology and evolutionary ecology of pathogens and parasites. New and resurgent diseases have emerged as major threats to public health, and more will probably do so in the future. Evolutionary biologists can aid in the effort to counter these threats in several ways. Screening for and studying the phylogeny of organisms related to known pathogens (e.g., viruses of other primates and vertebrates) may allow researchers to identify pathogens with the potential to enter the human population. Genetic, ecological, and phylogenetic studies of new and emergent pathogens (e.g., hantavirus and the Lyme disease spirochaete) can elucidate their origins, their rates and modes of transmission, and the ecological circumstances leading to outbreaks or to the evolution of greater virulence. Experimental studies of model systems, including organisms related to known pathogens, can identify mechanisms of virulence and the genetic and environmental factors that influence drug resistance. (Such studies will also have relevance, of course, to crops and domestic animals as well as economically important wild populations, such as fish.)

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2. Agriculture and biological resources
We noted above the many ways in which evolutionary biology has had an intimate relationship with agriculture and the management of biological resources such as forests and fisheries. The scope for further contributions in these areas is enormous. We highlight only a few of the most important topics to be pursued.

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· Pesticide resistance. Despite new alternative methods of pest management, judicious use of pesticides will undoubtedly remain indispensable. The evolution of pesticide resistance in insects, nematodes, fungi, and weeds is a serious economic problem that should receive major attention. This will require studies of the genetics and physiological mechanisms of resistance, population dynamic studies, and modeling of methods to limit or delay the evolution of resistance.

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· Alternatives in pest management. Evolutionary considerations will be important in evaluating many alternative methods of pest management, such as mixing different crops or crop varieties (intercropping), or developing transgenic crops that carry resistance factors protecting them against insects or other pests. Experiments have shown, for example, that tobacco pests can adapt to transgenic tobacco carrying a bacterial toxin, highlighting the need for studies of genetic variation in insect responses to transgenic crops. There is enormous potential for transgenic use of the innumerable secondary compounds and other properties of wild plants that protect them against insects and pathogens. Experimental and phylogenetic screening of these natural resistance factors should prove rewarding. The large field of evolutionary ecology concerned with secondary plant compounds and the interactions between plants and their insect and fungal enemies is relevant to this effort. It will be important to analyze the physiological effects of natural resistance factors on pest organisms, the mechanisms by which some insects and fungi overcome their effects, and genetic variation in the responses of target species to natural resistance factors.

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· Genetic diversity in economically important organisms. Production of food, fiber, and forest products has historically been greatly improved by exploiting genetic variation, and the methods for doing so have been deeply informed by evolutionary biology. Evolutionary and agricultural scientists together will use QTL (quantitative trait loci) mapping and other methods to locate the genes for, and elucidate the mechanistic bases of, important plant traits, such as resistance to pathogens and to environmental stresses. Such studies will also serve the interests of basic scientists interested in the adaptations of plants to environmental factors. Similar studies on wild plants will locate genes for useful traits that can be genetically engineered into crops. Research programs of this kind will use principles and information from studies of plant phylogeny and adaptation. The critically important task of developing and maintaining germ plasm banks (i.e., storing genetic diversity of crop plants and their relatives for future needs) will continue to depend on studies of variation within and among populations.

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· Fisheries. Several kinds of evolutionary studies have been and will continue to be important in managing commercial and sport fisheries. Molecular genetic markers will aid researchers in distinguishing breeding populations and migration routes of species such as cod and salmon. Studying the evolution of life history characteristics such as growth rate and age at maturity will enable managers to evaluate the genetic and demographic effects of harvesting on fish populations. For certain fish species that are widely stocked, genetic and physiological studies of adaptation to and fitness in different environments will be useful. Stocking plans will also include the use of transgenic fish, which are in the early stages of development.

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3. Natural products and processes
Pharmaceutical and other industries are actively searching for novel products and processes by screening plants, animals, and microorganisms (33). Because of its commercial implications, the search for and development of novel products and processes raises serious issues in patent law, international law, and the publication of scientific data that are beyond the scope of this report, but which will affect the engagement and activities of research scientists. Evolutionary studies will greatly contribute to research and development, resulting in many novel products and processes.

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· Systematics and phylogeny. Documenting the diversity of potentially useful organisms is the foundation for all further work. This has been recognized, for example, by the President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (48) and by the pharmaceutical companies that have funded biodiversity inventories in Costa Rica and elsewhere. The phylogenetic aspect of systematics is crucial for pointing researchers toward species that are related to those in which potentially useful compounds or metabolic pathways have been found, since related species may have similar, perhaps even more efficacious, properties. The systematics of bacteria, protists, fungi, and other inconspicuous organisms are very poorly known and require extensive investigation.

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· Studies of adaptation. Antibiotics, resistance factors for use in transgenic crops, and other useful natural products are likely to be found by studying the chemical mechanisms of competition among fungi and microorganisms, the defenses of plants against their natural enemies, and the waxes, steroids, terpenes, hormones, and innumerable other compounds that organisms use for diverse adaptive ends.

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· Genetic and physiological studies. Bacteria, yeasts, and other microorganisms have exceedingly diverse metabolic capacities. They have been the source of penicillin, of the polymerase enzyme used in DNA sequencing, and of important industrial processes of fermentation, biosynthesis, and biodegradation. Industry anticipates that “great advances in bio-processing can be expected from future exploration of the yet unexplored biodiversity of the land and sea” (30). Yet most microorganisms have not yet been described and characterized, the physiological capacities of most of them are unknown, and there is little information available on their genetic diversity, or on what kinds of novel metabolic capacities can arise by mutation. Researchers trained in evolutionary genetics, physiology, and systematics will make important contributions to this area.

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4. Environment and conservation
Evolutionary principles are immediately applicable to the conservation of rare and endangered species and ecosystems; in fact, many leading conservation biologists have done research in basic evolutionary biology. Evolutionary biology can also shed light on environmental management issues that bear directly on human health and welfare. Here we highlight only a few of the needs for evolutionary study in the fields of environmental management and conservation.

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· Bioremediation. Bioremediation refers primarily to the use of organisms (especially bacteria and plants) in cleaning up spills and toxins, treating sludge, and restoring degraded soils. Evolutionary biology can contribute to bioremediation by identifying species or genetic strains with desirable properties, by understanding the agents of natural selection that give rise to such properties, and by identifying the conditions that favor the persistence of useful organisms. Bacteria that can degrade polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other persistent contaminants are known, but it is not known whether this capability is characteristic of certain species or evolves in situ due to selection of new mutations. The community of bacteria involved in wastewater treatment undergoes a change in composition during the process, but the roles of turnover of species versus genetic change in the metabolism of persistent species are not known. Evolutionary genetics and systematics, together with microbial ecology and physiology, should continue to make important contributions to these and other questions in bioremediation.

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· Unplanned introductions. Many of our most serious pests, including weeds, insects, red-tide dinoflagellates, and zebra mussels, do the most damage in regions to which they are not native. Quarantine procedures instituted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture are intended to prevent such introductions. The advent of genetic engineering has caused concern about the escape of vigorous, genetically novel microorganisms, plants, fishes, or other organisms, and about the possibility that genes for novel capacities could spread by hybridization from transgenic organisms into wild ones, transforming benign species into novel pests. Evolutionary biologists have been active in assessing such risks (60). Studies of gene flow between and within species and evaluations of the fitness effects of genes must complement ecological studies of the relevant organisms if we are to predict the possible unintended effects of transgenic releases. The traditional role of systematics in identifying introduced organisms will continue to be important.

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· Predicting effects of environmental change. Of the many effects human activities have on the environment, the most universal posssible effect is global warming. Many other environmental alterations, such as desertification, salinization of fresh water, and acid rain, have more local, but still profound, effects on both wild species and biological resources. Predicting and possibly forestalling the effects of such changes is an important goal for ecological studies, but evolutionary biology also faces major challenges. In particular, we need to understand far better the conditions under which populations adapt to environmental changes versus migrating or becoming extinct, and what kinds of species will follow these courses. We also need to understand the conditions favoring “breakouts,” in which new species adapt to and disperse rapidly into novel environments. Agriculture and urbanization have produced many novel environments, and such breakout species may not be benign. Evolutionary biologists have documented many examples of species that have adapted rapidly, and many that have not, but a fuller theory of vulnerability versus potential for rapid adaptation is needed (28). Paleobiological studies can complement genetic and ecological studies by providing detailed histories of changes in the composition of communities and the distributions of species under past environmental changes. Paleobiology can also help us to develop generalizations about the kinds of species and communities that are most vulnerable.

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· Conservation of biodiversity. Alteration of habitats, intentional and unintentional harvesting of natural populations, and other human activities constitute a grave threat to the persistence of many species. Inevitably, difficult choices will be necessary in the allocation of resources, and not all threatened species and ecosystems will be safeguarded.

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Evolutionary biology and ecology work hand-in-hand in addressing these issues (34). There is a need for intense efforts to describe the diversity, distribution, and ecological requirements of organisms, especially those in regions where natural habitats are most rapidly being lost. Evolutionary systematics, biogeography, and ecological genetics provide the information needed in order to develop guidelines for conserving the greatest genetic diversity.

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Previous crises in biodiversity can be seen in the fossil record, and evolutionary paleontologists can use these records as natural experiments on the consequences of biodiversity loss, the characteristics of species most at risk, and the nature and time scale of biotic recovery. For example, many extinction events in the geologic past were followed immediately by outbreaks of weedy “disaster species.” Much more needs to be learned about this process, since there is no guarantee that disaster species that might arise in modern regions that have suffered extensive losses of biodiversity would be benign (55). Similarly, past biodiversity crises are associated with marked declines in primary productivity. This fact is relevant to future human welfare, in that humans now consume an estimated 25% of global primary productivity.

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Evolutionary biologists are also studying such relevant problems as the minimal population sizes necessary for species to retain sufficient genetic variation to avoid inbreeding depression and to adapt to diseases, climate change, and other perturbations; the factors that cause extinction; the role of multiple populations in the long-term genetic and ecological dynamics of species; the role of interactions among species in maintaining viable populations; and the effects of coevolution among interacting species on dynamic processes in ecosystems. Conservation biology will be strengthened by further research on these poorly understood problems.

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Some conservation efforts rely on germ plasm banks (for plants) and captive propagation (for animals). Population genetic theory plays a crucial role in these efforts. For example, inbreeding depression in small captive populations can be avoided by applying population genetic principles (59).

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This message has been edited by mick, 05-12-2006 10:05 PM